Animal Farm , written by George Orwell , is a political fable that tells the story of a group of farm animals who rebel against their cruel human master, hoping to create a society where all animals are equal, free, and happy. Inspired by the dream of the wise old pig Old Major, the animals overthrow the farmer Mr. Jones and take control of the farm, renaming it Animal Farm. At first, the animals work together to build an egalitarian community based on the principles of Animalism, summarized in the Seven Commandments painted on the barn wall. However, over time, the pigs—led by the cunning and power-hungry Napoleon—begin to seize control. They gradually assume privileges, manipulate language and truth, and use fear and propaganda to maintain power. Eventually, they become indistinguishable from the humans they once overthrew. This allegory clearly reflects the events of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the rise of Stalinism. The animals represent different social and political groups...

William the Conqueror

In 1066 duke William of Normandy conquered England after the Battle of Hastings.
Normans were Vikings who had settled on the north coast of France.
They introduced in England a feudal system.
Besides the feudal system, there was the Church when was organized hierarchically and it had both spiritual and temporal powers.
Under Henry II there came the first great clash between the Crown and the Church in England.
Henry II's eldest son Richard I, better known as the Lionheart, was celebrated as a legendary figure for his courage and personal charm.
John I, known as Lackland because of the loss of Normandy and most of his French territories, succeeded his brother as king of England.
His policy of heavy taxation met the resistance of feudal nobility.
In 1215 king John I was forced to grant the Magna Carta, which guaranteed rights and freedom to English people.
Under Henry III Parliament was formed, a feudal assembly composed by noblemen and high clergy; in the years 1264-65 two representatives from each borough were called to Parliament: this was the beginning of the future House of Commons.
The Norman Conquest had important consequences for English culture such as refined civilization and the French language.
The old Anglo-Saxon literature seemed to disappear.
Old English went on being spoken by the common people, while upper classes spoke a particular French dialect, called Anglo-Norman, and Latin was the language of the Church and Law.
The social and cultural life was dominated by a code of chivalry, which is based on:
- loyalty between the knight and his sovereign;
- courage in the face of death;
- code of love, which involving the knight's devotion to a woman, for whom he usually sets out on adventures.
The knight was defined a gentleman if he had these qualities and knew the notion of good manners.
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